Metallic Properties

Metallic Properties:

Metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of delocalized electrons. They are one of the three groups of elements as distinguished by their ionization and bonding properties, along with the metalloids and nonmetals. On the periodic table, a diagonal line drawn from boron (B) to polonium (Po) separates the metals from the nonmetals. Most elements on this line are metalloids, sometimes called semi-metals; elements to the lower left are metals; elements to the upper right are nonmetals (see the periodic table showing the metals).

Source: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Metallic_and_non_metallic_propertyhttp://wiki.answers.com/Q/Metallic_and_non_metallic_property

Atomic radius

The atomic radius of a chemical element is a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical distance from the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_radius

Video:

Atomic radius: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fBazliON32I

Metallic properties: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwTmKApE2Jg

Ionic and Covalent Bonding

IONIC BONDING
An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by the electron attraction between positive and negative ions


COVALENT BONDING

Covalent Bonds are chemical bonds formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between atoms


Examples:

Ionic Bond: NaCl

Total Number of Electrons: 8


There are no extra electrons so the drawing is done.

Covalent Bond: HCl

Total Number of electrons : 8

Covalent Bond: FCl₄⁺

GROUPS

- Elements in a group have the same valence electrons.

FAMILIES

IA - Alkali metals

IIA - Alkali earth metals

IIIA - Boron

IVA - Carbon

VA - Nitrogen

VIA - Chalcogens

VII - Halogens

VIII - Noble gas / Ideal gas

Scientific Measurements

Measurements

- the process of estimating or determining the magnitude of a quantity, such as length or mass, relative to a unit of measurement, such as metre or kilogram.

Units of Measurements

- Definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention and/or by law that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity.

SI BASE UNIT

1) Meter for length 

2) Kilogram for mass 

3) Second for time 

4) Kelvin for temperature 

Calibration

- Comparison between measurements - one of known magnitude or correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way as possible with a second device.

Accuracy

  - The degree of closeness of measurements

- Correctness, Exactitude, Exactness, truth

Precision

- The state or quality of being precise; exactness.

Place Values

 for whole numbers:

PRACTICE HERE: http://www.aaamath.com/plc41ax3.htm

for decimals:

 PRACTICE HERE: http://www.aaamath.com/plc51bx2.htm#pgtp

Quantum Numbers

Quantum Numbers

In quantum numbers always use the last electron
configuration in knowing the element`s “n, l, mL, mS”
♥ n- principal quantum
♥ l- azimuthal quantum
♥ mL- magnetic quantum
♥ms- magnetic spin quantum
For example:
6C : 1s2 2s2 2p6
12

Note: We'll be using Carbon as our example

♥ n- describes the energy level, an electron is located in.

Example: 2p6
               n= 2

♥ l- Sublevels in the atoms of the knownelements are s- p- d - f .
♥ describes the shape of the orbital.

Example: 2p6
               l= 1

Why 1?, because in the chart it shows that if the sublevel is p its 1.
















♥ mL-describes the orientation in space for the orbital.

Example: 2p6
               mL- 0

Take Note!!

♥ mS- Describes the spin of an electron.

Example: 2p6
               l= +1/2

Why +1/2?, because if the last arrow Is arrow down its –1/2 because it is
spinning counterclockwise, if its arrow up its +1/2 because it spins clockwise.

Electron Distribution

Electron distribution mnemonics


-The orbital names s, p, d, and f stand for names given to groups of lines in the spectra(plural of spectrum-The distribution of energy, arranged in order of wavelengths). These line groups are called sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.

-A function which gives the number of electrons per unit volume of phase space.
Electron Configuration

-arrangement of electrons of an atom, a molecule, or other physical structure. It concerns the way electrons can be distributed in the orbitals of the given system (atomic or molecular for instance).

Energy levels

-An atom consists of electrons orbiting around a nucleus. However,the electrons cannot choose any orbit they wish. They are restricted to orbits with only certain energies. Electrons can jump from one energy level to another, but they can never have orbits with energies other than the allowed energy levels.



-can only take on certain discrete values of energy, as opposed to classical particles, which can have any energy.



Bigger orbit =higher energy



Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is shared by more than one quantum mechanical state. They are then called degenerate energy levels.

Videos

Energy level

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9HgalWNCbI



Shell

-The main energy level in which an electron resides. It is given by the principle quantum no. , which is denoted by “n”. “n” can have a positive integral (quantized).

Subshell

-This is the sub-energy level in which the electron resides. It is given by the azimuthal quantum number, denoted by “L”, satisfies the inequality.



Orbital

This is an orientation a subshell takes up in presence of an external magnetic field. It is given by the magnetic quantum number “m”.


Electron distribution mnemonics


-The orbital names s, p, d, and f stand for names given to groups of lines in the spectra(plural of spectrum-The distribution of energy, arranged in order of wavelengths). These line groups are called sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.

-A function which gives the number of electrons per unit volume of phase space.





Electron Configuration

-arrangement of electrons of an atom, a molecule, or other physical structure. It concerns the way electrons can be distributed in the orbitals of the given system (atomic or molecular for instance).





Energy levels

-An atom consists of electrons orbiting around a nucleus. However,the electrons cannot choose any orbit they wish. They are restricted to orbits with only certain energies. Electrons can jump from one energy level to another, but they can never have orbits with energies other than the allowed energy levels.



-can only take on certain discrete values of energy, as opposed to classical particles, which can have any energy.



Bigger orbit =higher energy



Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is shared by more than one quantum mechanical state. They are then called degenerate energy levels.



Videos

Energy level

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9HgalWNCbI



Shell

-The main energy level in which an electron resides. It is given by the principle quantum no. , which is denoted by “n”. “n” can have a positive integral (quantized).



Subshell

-This is the sub-energy level in which the electron resides. It is given by the azimuthal quantum number, denoted by “L”, satisfies the inequality.


Subshell label L Max.electrons Shells containing it. Historical name

S 0 2 Every shell Sharp

P 1 6 2nd shell + Principle

D 2 10 3rd shell+ Diffuse

F 3 14 4th shell + Fundemental

Atoms

ATOMS

→ the smallest mediaeval unit of time, equal to fifteen ninety-fourths of a second.

→ a theoretical particle of matter, imagined to be incapable of further division; the smallest possible unit of substance.

Sub-atomic Particles:

Protons:

→ a positively charged subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus of an atom → determines the atomic number of an element.

Electron:

→ the subatomic particle having a negative charge

→ orbiting the nucleus; the flow of electrons in a conductor constitutes electricity.

Neutron:

→ subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus of an atom

→ no charge.

How to Determine the Atomic and Mass Number:

• Atomic Number

→ number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic number

• Mass Number

→ determined by the number of protons and neutrons in an atom

Ex:

* Isotope - Any of two or more atoms of an element having the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons in its nucleus. (same atomic number but not mass number)

Ex:

IONS

→ an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge

• Anion – gains electrons (negative)

Ex:

• Cation - loses electrons (positive)

Ex:

AZPEN*

Formula:

• A (mass number) = P + N

• Z (atomic number) = P

• P (proton) = Z

• E (electrons) = P - [charge of ion]

• N (neutron) = A - Z

Accuracy, Precision and Sensitivity in Measuring Devices

Accuracy
Imagine hitting a bullseye for more than once and you see the darts are close to the center but they’re not necessarily close to each other. That pertains to accuracy. If your results are near the exact value needed, then they are accurate. The different results don’t have to be near each other. According to qualitydigest.com, no measurement is perfect and all measurements have some error associated with them.

*Let's take a look at this image. This is a good example of accuracy and precision. Since the darts are in the center, they are accurate. and since the results are near each other, they are precise.   
 Precision
Let’s try to go back to our imagination of a bullseye. What if you try to hit it again for four times and the results were not that close to the center but each result is near each other or the same? It means that your results are precise. Precision is the ability to have very close results with repeated experiments. 

Let’s get to the big question.  WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?
Accuracy and Precision are a bit the same but there’s also a big difference. When we speak of accuracy, we always try to get the right answer. If you have a number of results and one or maybe two of them are near the exact needed value, then you are accurate. The different results don’t have to be near each other, they just have to be near the correct answer. On the other hand, Precision refers to the nearness of the results to each other, and not necessarily on the correct answer.


Accuracy and Sensitivity in Measuring Devices
Since we already know about Accuracy, we will only discuss the meaning of sensitivity and its use in measuring. Sensitivity is known as the place value that is no longer represented or seen in the calibration. It is also the place value after the accuracy; it is already estimated or approximated. 

Let's look at this image. There are calibrations, right? But what if the liquid that is inside this beaker goes in between those calibrations? how can we measure them?  
Let's imagine a liquid that measures above 100 mL but below 125 mL. We can have an estimation of 110 mL. The accurate part of the measurement is 100 mL because we already know that it is above 100 mL. We estimated the 10 mL of the measurement because we only know that it is below 125 mL. The 10 mL part of our measurement is what we call the sensitivity of the measurement.

What's a percentage error? How do we do that?

Now, every time we take measurements in our experiments, we always measure it more than once. Now, we have to take note if our results are either accurate, precise or simply both. But how do we do that? 
In order to determine accuracy and precision, we must first get the percentage errors of the results. Percentage errors are used to determine how close to the true values, or how accurate experimental values are.

According to gmasononline.com, this is how we get the percentage error.

We really hope you learned some stuff here, so we made some exercises for you. DON'T LOOK UP!

1. Accuracy :________  , Precision : group of values near each other

                        a. estimated value                       b. far from the correct value

                        c. near correct value                   d. Bias

________2. True or False. Sensitivity refers to the estimated part of the measurements.

________3. Gerard, Renzo and Inno recorded the temperature of a boiling liquid three times.

                       Gerard's Result - 78 C

                       Renzo's Result - 79 C                   Correct value - 79 C

                       Inno's Result - 78.5 C

                       Were the results accurate, precise, or both?

_______4.   What is percentage error?

Box Configuration

Aufbau Principle

The physical and chemical properties of elements is determined by the atomic structure. The atomic structure is, in turn, determined by the electrons and which shells, subshells and orbitals they reside in. The rules af placing electrons within shells is known as the Aufbau principle. These rules are:

 1. Electrons are placed in the lowest energetically available subshell.

 2. An orbital can hold at most 2 electrons.

 3. If two or more energetically equivalent orbitals are available (e.g., p, d etc.) then electrons should be spread out before they are paired up (Hund's rule).

Hund's rule

 

In an orbital, electrons will fill all available positions of the same value of s before the opposite spin value appears.
 

Pauli's Exclusion

No two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers. This is an example of a general principle which applies not only to electrons but also to other particles of half-integer spin (fermions). It does not apply to particles of integer spin (bosons). 

 

JJ Thomson

Joseph John Thomson was born in Cheetham Hill, a suburb of Manchester on December 18, 1856. He enrolled at Owens College, Manchester, in 1870, and in 1876 entered Trinity College, Cambridge as a minor scholar. He became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1880, when he was Second Wrangler and Second Smith's Prizeman, and he remained a member of the College for the rest of his life, becoming Lecturer in 1883 and Master in 1918. He was Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge, where he succeeded Lord Rayleigh, from 1884 to 1918 and Honorary Professor of Physics, Cambridge and Royal Institution, London.



Here's a video on Thomson:




J. J. Thomson's raisin bread model (plum pudding model)

J. J. Thomson considered that the structure of an atom is something like a raisin bread, so that his atomic model is sometimes called the raisin bread model. He assumed that the basic body of an atom is a spherical object containing N electrons confined in homogeneous jellylike but relatively massive positive charge distribution whose total charge cancelsthat of the N electrons. The schematic drawing of this model is shown in the following figure. Thomson's model is sometimes dubbed a plum pudding model.




Here's a video on Thomson's model of atoms:



Sources:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BovmsKUOYE&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RW_zfKOU9uM&feature=related
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
http://www.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part2_E/P24_E/Thomson_model_E.html

Antoine Lavoisier

                 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794) He is also known to be “the father of modern chemistry.” He was a nobleman famous in the histories of Chemistry and Biology; he also stated the first version of the Law of Conservation of Mass, named oxygen and hydrogen, abolished the phlogiston theory and also helped construct the metric system.

                He also wrote the first extensive list of elements and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.  An investor and administrator of the "Ferme Générale" (a private tax collection company); He was also the chairman of the board of the Discount Bank. He was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling watered-down tobacco and of other crimes and of guillotined (behead).

1789 - The principle of conservation of mass was first outlined clearly by Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)

               It has been claimed that Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had expressed similar ideas during 1748—and proved them by experiments—but this has been challenged.^[6] Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include Joseph Black (1728–1799), Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), and Jean Rey (1583–1645).

 

           Antoine is born of a wealthy family from Paris. He was able to inherit a large fortune when he was 5 years old because of his mother’s death. 

          He Studied in the College of Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. He studied Chemistry, Botany, Astronomy and Mathematics. 

         His love for Chemistry was influenced by Étienne Condillac who was a French scholar.

1748 -  The Law of Conservation of Mass was first stated at a physical theory by Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov

 1764- His first chemical publication appeared. He worked with Jean-Étienne Guettard;

 1767- Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine. When he was 25, he was elected as a member of French Academy of Sciences. 

 1771- at the age of 28, Lavoisier married the 13-year-old Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. She created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry. 

1789 - This theory (the Law of Conservation of Mass) was later reiterated and confirmed by French scientist Antoine Lavoisier . Lavoisier verified his theory in practice by carrying out a number of carefully measured experiments in which he reacted tin and lead with oxygen.

Sources:

* http://www.ehow.com/about_4568411_law-conservation-mass.html

* http://www.google.com.ph/imglanding?q=atomic%20model%20of%20anton%20lavoisier&imgurl=https://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/antoine.jpg/45246693/antoine.jpg&imgrefurl=https://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/Fall.2008.MMA.Cushman.Hutchinson.Timel ne&usg=__TUfs8_GTeMcvYMsp4tTLoodJc1I=&h=461&w=1013&sz=111&hl=en&itbs=1&tbnid=SXXyh8l7TAM_iM:&tbnh=68&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Datomic%2Bmodel%2Bof%2Banton%2Blavoisier%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DG%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-USfficial%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1&client=firefox-a&sa=G&rls=org.mozilla:en-USfficial&gbv=2&tbs=isch:1&start=3#tbnid=SXXyh8l7TAM_iM&start=7

*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_mass#Historical_development_and_importance

* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier

*  http://www.google.com.ph/imglanding?q=anton%20lavoisier&imgurl=http://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/HSantoin.jpg/44989145/HSantoin.jpg&imgrefurl=http://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/A.%2BGrimner%2Band%2BJ.%2BCondlin%2BTime%2BLine%2BProject&us =__8SSUcclY_Wzjn_WyIkdN5O12nB0=&h=344&w=280&sz=12&hl=en&itbs=1&tbnid=5XdKmC72X7DfqM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=98&prev=/images%3Fq%3Danton%2Blavoisier%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-USfficial%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-USfficial&gbv=2&tbs=isch:1&start=5#tbnid=5XdKmC72X7DfqM&start=9 

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John Dalton

John Dalton
  

ALL ABOUT JOHN DALTON
➝ He is The Father of Modern Atomic Theory.
Born: 6 September 1766
Birthplace: Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England
Died: 27 July 1844
Best Known As: The weather pioneer who advocated atomic theory



BRIEF BACKGROUND
John Dalton was born in England in 1766. He was brought up as a Quaker and at 12 years of age was running the school. He kept a journal of meteorological observations for 57 years and is an acknowledged pioneer of that science. He was honoured for his work on an atomic theory for the elements, was elected to various learned academies, and throughout remained a humble man and a dedicated teacher.


ACHIEVEMENTS
• He revived the atomic theory, which he formulated in the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy (2 vol., 1808-27).
• He had already applied the concept to a table of atomic weights (1803), in a paper (1805) on the absorption of gases, and in developing his famous law of partial pressures, known also as Dalton's law.
• His interest in weather conditions led him to keep daily records from 1787 and to write Meteorological Observations and Essays (1793).
• Dalton, himself afflicted with color blindness, investigated (c.1794) the condition, known also as Daltonism.
• From 1793 he taught mathematics and physical sciences at New College, Manchester.
• He was a member of the Royal Society (from 1822) and in 1825 received its medal for his work on the atomic theory.


THE ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton's theory was based on the premise that the atoms of different elements could be distinguished by differences in their weights. He stated his theory in a lecture to the Royal Institution in 1803. The theory proposed a number of basic ideas:

• All matter is composed of atoms
• Atoms cannot be made or destroyed
• All atoms of the same element are identical
• Different elements have different types of atoms
• Chemical reactions occur when atoms are rearranged
• Compounds are formed from atoms of the constituent elements.

Using his theory, Dalton rationalised the various laws of chemical combination which were in existence at that time. However, he made a mistake in assuming that the simplest compound of two elements must be binary, formed from atoms of each element in a 1:1 ratio, and his system of atomic weights was not very accurate - he gave oxygen an atomic weight of seven instead of eight.
Despite these errors, Dalton's theory provided a logical explanation of concepts, and led the way into new fields of experimentation.



* Billiard Ball Model (1803) - John Dalton viewed the atom as a small solid sphere. He really got the "ball" rolling for modern chemistry!


EVENTS THAT HAPPENED DURING HIS ERA
1803
January - March
* January 5 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat". : steamboat Charlotte Dundas.
* January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, and possibly buy, New Orleans; they end up completing the Louisiana Purchase.
* February 21 – Edward Despard and 6 others are hanged and beheaded for plotting to assassinate King George III and to destroy the Bank of England.
* February 24 – Marbury v. Madison: The Supreme Court of the United States establishes the principle of judicial review.
* February 25 – A major redistribution of territorial sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire is enacted via an act known as the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss.
* March 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state, retroactive from August 7, 1953.
* March 9 – Aargau becomes a Swiss canton.

April – June
* April 30 – Louisiana Purchase is made by the United States from France.
* May – The First Consul of France Citizen Bonaparte begins making preparations to invade England.
* May 18 – The United Kingdom resumes war on France after France refuses to withdraw from Dutch territory.
* May 19 – Master Malati, a Coptic Christian leader, is beheaded by a Muslim mob in Cairo, Egypt.

July – September
* July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
* July 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover (which had been ruled by the British king).
* July 23 – Robert Emmet's uprising in Ireland begins.
* July 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line of the world.
* August 3 – The British begin the Second Anglo-Maratha War against Sindhia of Gwalior.
* September 3 – William Wordsworth wrote "Upon Westminster Bridge"
* September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed.
* September 23 – Battle of Assaye (India): British-led troops defeat Maratha forces.

October – December
* October 20 – The Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
* November 18- Battle of Vertières: The Haitian army led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeats the army of Napoleon.
* November 30 – At the Cabildo building in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo, officially transfer the Louisiana Territory to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat (just 20 days later, France transfers the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase).
____________________________________________________________
Sources:
http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1427745.htm
http://www.csmate.colostate.edu/cltw/cohortpages/viney_off/atomhistory.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dalton
http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1427745.htm
http://answers.encyclopedia.com/question/were-john-dalton-main-accomplishments-84750.html